World Civilizations: The Origins Of Civilizations
Human Life In The Era Of Hunters And Gatherers
By the end of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age in 12,000 B.C., humans had
evolved in physical appearance and mental capacity to roughly the same level
as today. Our species, Homo sapiens, had been competing with increasing
success for game and campsites with other humanlike creatures for nearly
30,000 years. Homo sapiens' enlarged brain, critical to the survival of all of
the branches of the genus Homo, was virtually the same size as that of modern
humans. The erect posture of Stone Age humans produced a tendency toward
spinal strain and backaches that was more than compensated for by the fact
that an upright posture freed their hands, as it had those of earlier human
species. The combination of a larger brain and free hands with opposable
thumbs made it possible for different human species to craft and manipulate
tools and weapons of increasing sophistication. These implements helped to
offset the humans' marked inferiority in body strength and speed to rival
predators, such as wolves and wild cats, as well as to many of the creatures
that humans themselves preyed on. A more highly developed brain also allowed
humans to transform cries and grunts into the patterned sounds that make up
language. Language greatly enhanced the possibilities for cooperation and a
sense of cohesion within the small bands that were the predominant form of
human social organization in this era. By the last phase of the Paleolithic
epoch these advantages had made Homo sapiens a species capable of mastering
the earth.
Paleolithic Culture
No matter how much Homo sapiens sapiens may have developed in physical
appearance and brain capacity by around 12,000 B.C., its culture, with some
exceptions, was not radically different from the cultures of the rival human
species such as the Neanderthals, who had died out thousands of years earlier.
Fire, which was perhaps the most central element in the material culture of
Paleolithic peoples, had been mastered nearly a half million years earlier.
Originally snatched from conflagrations caused by lightning or lava flows,
fire was domesticated as humans developed techniques to preserve glowing
embers and to start fires by rubbing sticks and other materials together. The
control of fire led to numerous improvements in the lives of Stone Age
peoples. It rendered edible a much wider range of foods, particularly animal
flesh, which was virtually the only source of protein in a culture without
cows, goats, or chickens and thus lacking in milk, cheese, and eggs. Cooked
meat, which was easier to digest, may also have been more effectively
preserved and stored, thus giving Stone Age peoples an additional buffer
against the constant threat of starvation. In addition, fire was used in
treating animal hides for clothing and hardening wooden weapons and tools. Its
light and warmth became the focal point of human campsites.
By Late Paleolithic or Old Stone Age times, human groups survived by
combining hunting and fishing with the gathering of fruits, berries, grains,
and root crops that grew in the wild. They had created a considerable number
of tools to assist them in these critical endeavors. Tools of wood and bone
have perished; thus surviving stone tools are our main evidence of the
technology of this epoch. These tools had advanced considerably by the late
Old Stone Age. Early human tools, discovered by archeologists at sites that
date back well over 2 million years, were made by breaking off the edges of
stone cores to create crude points or rough cutting surfaces. By the Late
Paleolithic period, humans had grown much more adept at working stone. They
preferred to chip and sharpen flakes broken off the core stone. These chips
could be fashioned into knife blades, arrow points, or choppers, which had a
wide range of uses from hunting and warfare to skinning animal carcasses and
harvesting wild plants.
Earlier human groups had produced evidence of artistic expression, small
figurines and decorated implements; the Late Paleolithic was a period of
particularly intense creativity. Fine miniature sculpture, beads and other
forms of jewelry, and carved bones were produced by Paleolithic peoples, but
their most impressive artistic contributions were the cave paintings that have
been discovered at sites in southern France and Spain. Remarkably realistic
and colorful depictions of a variety of animals from woolly mammoths to horses
were found deep in the caverns at these sites.
Because the peoples who created these paintings did not write, we cannot
be certain of the reasons for this surge in artistic creativity. These
paintings may have been done for the sake of artistic expression itself. But
the location of the paintings deep in the cave complexes and the rather
consistent choice of game animals as subject matter suggest that they served a
ritual purpose. Perhaps capturing the images of animals in art was seen as a
way of assisting hunting parties in the wild. It is also possible that those
who painted the animal figures hoped to acquire some of the strength and speed
of the animals depicted, to improve their chances in the hunt and to ward off
the animals that preyed on the human hunters themselves. Some paintings may
have been done to celebrate and commemorate particularly successful hunting
expeditions or other key events.
Other paintings and in many cases small sculptures, including those found
at a number of Middle Eastern sites, appear to have religious significance.
They may have been intended, for example, to depict prominent deities or to
promote fertility. There is also speculation that paintings at a number of
sites may represent early counting systems or primitive calendars. Whatever
their purpose, the paintings of the Old Stone Age era suggest quite a
sophisticated level of thinking. They also indicate that humans were becoming
increasingly interested in expressing themselves artistically and leaving
lasting images of their activities and concerns.
The Spread Of Human Culture
The possession of fire and tools with which to make clothing and shelters
made it possible for different human species to extend the range of their
habitation far beyond the East African savanna (grassy plain) zone where they
had originated. During the last Ice Age, which began about 2.5 million years
ago and ended around 8000 B.C., humans first moved northward from Africa into
Europe and eastward across the present-day Middle East into central Asia,
India, and East Asia. Neanderthals and related peoples were found across this
zone as late as 35,000 B.C., and some archeologists claim that by then they
may also have begun to migrate across a land bridge into the New World. By
10,000 B.C., groups of the Homo sapiens sapiens species had colonized all of
the continents except Antarctica. Glaciation, which had caused a significant
drop in sea levels, resulted in land bridges to the New World and Australia.
By the late Paleolithic period, around 12,000 B.C., human colonies were found
in North and South America and in the south and west of Australia. Thus, long
before the rise of civilizations, human societies had proven themselves
capable of surviving in widely varying climates and terrains.
