Agriculture And The Origins Of Civilization: The Neolithic Revolution
Edited By: Robert Guisepi
There was nothing natural or inevitable about the development of
agriculture. Because cultivation of plants requires more labor than hunting
and gathering, we can assume that Stone Age humans gave up their former ways
of life reluctantly and slowly. In fact, peoples such as the Bushmen of
Southwest Africa still follow them today. But between about 8000 and 3500
B.C., increasing numbers of humans shifted to dependence on cultivated crops
and domesticated animals for their subsistence. By about 7000 B.C., their
tools and skills had advanced sufficiently for cultivating peoples to support
towns with over one thousand people, such as Jericho in the valley of the
Jordan River and Catal Huyuk in present-day Turkey. By 3500 B.C., agricultural
peoples in the Middle East could support sufficient numbers of non-cultivating
specialists to give rise to the first civilizations. As this pattern spread to
or developed independently in other centers across the globe, the character of
most human lives and the history of the species as a whole were fundamentally
transformed.
Causes Of The Agrarian Transformation
Because there are no written records of the transition period between
8000 and 5000 B.C. when many animals were first domesticated and plants were
cultivated on a regular basis, we cannot be certain why and how some peoples
adopted these new ways of producing food and other necessities of life.
Climatic changes associated with the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the
last Ice Age (about 12,000 B.C.), may have played an important role. These
climatic shifts prompted the migration of many big game animals to new
pasturelands in northern areas. They also left a dwindling supply of game for
human hunters in areas such as the Middle East, where agriculture first arose
and many animals were first domesticated. Climatic shifts also led to changes
in the distribution and growing patterns of wild grains and other crops on
which hunters and gatherers depended. In addition, it is likely that the shift
to sedentary farming was prompted in part by an increase in human populations
in certain areas. It is possible that the population growth was caused by
changes in the climate and plant and animal life, forcing hunting bands to
move into the territories where these shifts had been minimal. It is also
possible that population growth occurred within these unaffected regions,
because the hunting-and-gathering pattern reached higher levels of
productivity. Peoples like the Natufians found their human communities could
grow significantly by intensively harvesting grains that grew in the wild. As
the population grew, more and more attention was given to the grain harvest,
which eventually led to the conscious and systematic cultivation of plants and
thus the agrarian revolution.
The Domestication Of Plants And Animals
The peoples who first cultivated cereal grains had long observed them
growing in the wild and gleaned their seeds as they gathered other plants for
their leaves and roots. In Late Paleolithic times both wild barley and wheat
grew over large areas in present-day Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and
Israel. Hunting-and-gathering bands in these areas may have consciously
experimented with planting and nurturing seeds taken from the wilds or they
may have accidentally discovered the principles of domestication by observing
the growth of seeds dropped near their campsites. However it began, the
practice of agriculture caught on only gradually. Archeological evidence
suggests that the first agriculturists retained their hunting-and-gathering
activities as a hedge against the ever-present threat of starvation. But as
Stone Age peoples became more adept at cultivating a growing range of crops,
including protein-rich legumes such as peas and beans, various fruits, and
olives, the effort they expended on activities outside agriculture diminished.
It is probable that the earliest farmers broadcast wild seeds, a practice
that cut down on labor but sharply reduced the potential yield. Over the
centuries, more and more care was taken to select the best grain for seed and
to mix different strains in ways that improved both crop yields and resistance
to plant diseases. As the time required to tend growing plants and the
dependence on agricultural production for subsistence increased, some roving
bands chose to settle down while others practiced a mix of hunting and
shifting cultivation that allowed them to continue to move about.
Though several animals may have been domesticated before the discovery of
agriculture, the two processes combined to make up the critical transformation
in human culture called the Neolithic (New Stone Age) revolution. Different
animal species were tamed in different ways that reflected both their own
natures and the ways in which they interacted with humans. Dogs, for example,
were originally wolves that hunted humans or scavenged at their campsites. As
early as 12,000 B.C., Stone Age peoples found that wolf pups could be tamed
and trained to track and corner game. The strains of dogs that gradually
developed proved adept at controlling herd animals like sheep. Relatively
docile and defenseless herds of sheep could be controlled once their leaders
had been captured and tamed. Sheep, goats, and pigs (which also were
scavengers at human campsites) were first domesticated in the Middle East
between 8500 and 7000 B.C. Horned cattle, which were faster and better able to
defend themselves than wild sheep, were not tamed until about 6500 B.C. The
central place of bull and cattle symbolism in the sacrificial and fertility
cults of many early peoples has led some archeologists to argue that their
domestication was originally motivated by religious sentiments rather than a
desire for new sources of food and clothing.
Domesticated animals such as cattle and sheep provided New Stone Age
humans with additional sources of protein-rich meat and in some cases milk.
Animal hides and wool greatly expanded the materials from which clothes,
containers, shelters, and crude boats could be crafted. Animal horns and bones
could be carved or used for needles and other utensils. Because plows and
wheels did not come into use until the Bronze Age (c. 4000-3500 B.C.), most
Neolithic peoples made little use of animal power for farming, transportation,
or travel. There is evidence, however, that peoples in northern areas used
tamed reindeer to pull sledges, and those farther South used camels for
transporting goods. More importantly, the Neolithic peoples used domesticated
herd animals as a steady source of manure to enrich the soil and thus improve
the yield of the crops that were gradually becoming the basis of their
livelihood.
The Spread Of The Neolithic Revolution
The greater labor involved in cultivation and the fact that it did not at
first greatly enhance the peoples' security or living standards caused many
bands to stay with long-tested subsistence strategies. Through most of the
Neolithic period, sedentary agricultural communities coexisted with more
numerous bands of hunters and gatherers, migratory cultivators, and hunters
and fishers. Even after sedentary agriculture became the basis for the
livelihood of the majority of humans, hunters and gatherers and shifting
cultivators held out in many areas of the globe. For example, due to the
absence of the horse and most herd animals in the Americas, nomadic hunting
cultures became the main alternatives there.
The domestication of animals gave rise to pastoralism which has proven
the strongest competitor to sedentary agriculture throughout most of the
world. Pastoralism has thrived in semiarid areas such as central Asia, the
Sudanic belt south of the Sahara desert in Africa, and the savanna zone of
East and South Africa. These areas were incapable of supporting dense or large
populations. The nomadic, herding way of life has tended to produce
independent and hardy peoples, well-versed in the military skills needed not
only for their survival but also to challenge more heavily populated agrarian
societies. Horse-riding nomads who herd sheep or cattle have destroyed
powerful kingdoms and laid the foundations for vast empires. The camel nomads
of Arabia played critical roles in the rise of Islamic civilization. The
cattle-herding peoples of central, East, and South Africa produced some of the
most formidable pre-industrial military organizations. Only with the rather
recent period of the Industrial Revolution has the power of nomadic peoples
been irreparably broken and the continuation of their cultures threatened by
the steady encroachment of sedentary peoples.
In the era of the Neolithic revolution (roughly 8000-5000 B.C.),
agriculture was far from the dominant mode of support for human societies. But
those who adopted it survived and increased, and passed their techniques of
production to other peoples. The cultivation of wheat and barley spread
throughout the Middle East and eastward to India. These crops also spread
northward to Europe, where oats and rye were added later. From Egypt, the
cultivation of grain crops and fibers, such as flax and cotton that were used
for clothing, spread to peoples along the Nile in the interior of Africa,
along the North African coast, and across the vast savanna zone south of the
Sahara desert.
Agriculture in the African rain forest zone farther south evolved
independently in the 2d millennium B.C., and was based on root crops such as
cassava and tree crops such as bananas and palm nuts. In northern China during
the Neolithic period, a millet-based agricultural system developed along the
Huanghe or Yellow River basin. From this core region, it spread in the last
millennia B.C. east toward the North China Sea and southward toward the
Yangtze basin. A later, but independent, agricultural revolution based on rice
began in mainland Southeast Asia sometime before 5000 B.C. and slowly spread
into South China and India and to the islands of Southeast Asia. In the
Americas maize- (or corn), manioc-, and sweet potato-based agrarian systems
arose in Mesoamerica (Mexico and Central America today) and present-day Peru.
Long before the arrival of Columbus in the Americas in A.D. 1492, these and
other crops had spread through large portions of the continents of the Western
Hemisphere, from the temperate woodlands of the North Atlantic coast to the
rain forests of the Amazon region. Thus, varying patterns of agricultural
production were disseminated on all the inhabited continents except Australia,
to virtually all the regions of the globe where there were sufficient rainfall
and suitable temperatures.
