The Agrarian Revolution and the Birth of Civilization
Authors: Peter N. Stearns, Michael Adas, Stuart B. Schwartz
Date: 1992
Human Society and Daily Life at the End of the Old Stone Age
Most human societies during the Old Stone Age consisted of small groups migrating in pursuit of game animals and wild plants. Recent archaeological findings, however, reveal that some communities managed to establish semi-permanent settlements, harvesting wild grains abundant in certain regions. These groups laid the groundwork for the transition to farming by domesticating plants and animals near their villages.
Not all Paleolithic communities embraced full-fledged agriculture; some reverted to hunting and gathering. These patterns caution against viewing farming as an inevitable step in human development. Instead, survival strategies varied, influenced by climate, water availability, dietary needs, and population dynamics. Only groups that domesticated crops and animals eventually developed civilizations.
The Wanderers
Hunting and gathering groups typically consisted of 20-30 members and required vast areas to sustain themselves. They were nomadic, often moving between the same grazing or forested areas annually. Contrary to the popular image of cave-dwellers, most Stone Age people lived in temporary shelters built from skins, leaves, and grasses. Migration was prompted by seasonal herd movements, resource scarcity, or threats from rival bands.
Labor was divided by gender: men hunted and protected the group, while women gathered food, ensuring the band's survival during lean periods. Women also used medicinal plants to treat illnesses and played a critical role in childbirth, given high mortality rates. The prominence of feminine symbolism in early art, such as fertility figurines, reflects women's significant influence within these societies.
Settling Down: Dead Ends and Transitions
While most humans remained nomadic, some developed more intensive hunting and gathering strategies, enabling semi-permanent or permanent settlements.
- Mammoth-Bone Communities (Central Russia)
Around 20,000 years ago, groups in central Russia relied heavily on mammoth hunting. Their settlements featured mammoth-bone structures, storage pits, and evidence of trade networks extending over 500 miles. These communities lasted from 18,000 to 10,000 B.C. before disappearing for unknown reasons. - Natufian Complex (Present-Day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon)
Climate changes between 12,000 and 11,000 B.C. allowed wild grains like barley and wheat to flourish. The Natufians exploited these resources, supporting densely populated settlements with stone dwellings, advanced grain storage techniques, and grinding tools. Their society was stratified, with status differences evident in burials and material culture. Matrilineal inheritance and matrilocal residence patterns suggest women held significant power in these communities.
The Natufians' reliance on a few staples made them vulnerable to environmental changes. By 9000 B.C., arid conditions forced many settlements to abandon their grain-dependent way of life. Some reverted to migratory practices, while others near water sources began domesticating crops.
A Precarious Existence
Until around 12,000 B.C., technological and social advancements were slow, and survival was fraught with danger. Nomadic bands lived in constant fear of predators, illness, and the elements. Their tools and weapons were rudimentary, and their existence was tied to the movements of game animals.
Permanent settlements provided better shelter and food security but were vulnerable to shifts in climate and resources. Despite these challenges, late Paleolithic humans had significantly improved their survival strategies compared to their predecessors. By 8000 B.C., the advent of agriculture began transforming human societies, setting the stage for civilization.
