Africa: The Spread of Civilization in Africa
Various Authors
Edited By: R. A. Guisepi
Date: 2001
Africa is a continent of great size, almost 12 million square miles or about three times the size of the United States. Most of it lies in the tropics, and although we often think of Africa in terms of its rainforests, less than ten percent of the continent is covered by tropical forests, mostly in West Africa. Much of the African surface is covered by savannas (open grasslands), arid plains, and deserts. Geologically, the continent is formed by a series of high plateaus, broken in the east by the Great Rift Valley and its surrounding mountains.
Large rivers such as the Congo, Nile, Zambezi, and Niger begin in the continent's interior and flow to the sea over great falls and cataracts, marking the transition from plateau to coast. While these falls historically hindered movement from the coast to the interior, the great river systems provided interior Africa with vital communication routes.
The Origins of Humankind
East Africa holds a special place in human history, as it is where some of the earliest fossil remains of protohominids have been found. Long before the appearance of Homo sapiens around 300,000 years ago, earlier hominid species like Homo erectus migrated from Africa to Asia and Europe. Thus, Africa was not only the birthplace of humanity but also played a role in the early development of civilization.
Contrary to the false image of Africa as a "dark" and isolated continent, it was often in contact with other parts of the world, exchanging technology, crops, ideas, and material goods that stimulated social and cultural innovations. Evidence now suggests that Africa itself contributed early humans, languages, crops, and cultural influences to other regions.
Climate Change and Migration
A significant climatic change altered Africa's landscape, setting the stage for historical processes. During the Late Stone Age, the Sahara was far better watered than today, receiving 10 to 50 times more rainfall. By 3000 B.C., much of the area had become desert.
As the Sahara became less habitable, its populations migrated north to the Mediterranean coast and south into the Sahel and grassy savannas. This region, known as the Sudan, became a center of cultural development. These migrations laid the foundation for significant historical developments.
Agriculture, Iron, and the Bantu Peoples
Agriculture may have independently developed in Africa, but its spread was likely influenced by contact with the Near East and Mediterranean. Early crops such as millet and sorghum were of West Asian origin, possibly reaching Africa through Egypt or Ethiopia. Over time, Africans domesticated their own crops, such as varieties of rice, while adopting imports like bananas from Southeast Asia and maize from the Americas in the 16th century.
Livestock—including cattle, sheep, and goats—was introduced from Asia. Horses, brought by the Hyksos invaders of Egypt (1780-1560 B.C.), spread across the Sudan and West Africa. Around the first century A.D., camels were introduced from Asia, revolutionizing desert trade and communication.
Ironworking, introduced from West Asia, transformed African societies. Unlike other regions that developed bronze first, most of Africa transitioned directly from stone tools to iron. Ironworking knowledge entered sub-Saharan Africa through Phoenician colonies and Red Sea routes, spreading rapidly.
Iron tools enhanced agriculture and warfare, empowering blacksmiths who often held special social and religious roles. By the first century A.D., iron tools and weapons were widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
The Bantu Dispersal
The spread of agriculture and iron coincided with a significant migration of Bantu-speaking peoples, originating from eastern Nigeria. These migrations, spanning nearly a thousand years, were likely driven by population pressures and technological advantages.
The Bantu gradually spread into central, eastern, and southern Africa, adapting to local environments and assimilating indigenous peoples. By the 12th century, Bantu-speaking societies had reached Zimbabwe and South Africa, establishing agricultural and herding communities that shaped the continent's cultural landscape.
By the 13th century, Black Africa's major features were in place. While some hunting and gathering peoples, like the Pygmies and Bushmen, persisted, the majority of Africans lived in agricultural and iron-using societies. The widespread adoption of Bantu languages marked one of the world's great migrations.
