The dawn of the 20th century saw Portugal enter a period of social and political turbulence that would eventually lead to the downfall of its centuries-old monarchy. The establishment of the Portuguese First Republic in 1910 marked a decisive shift toward secularism, transforming a deeply Catholic society into a republic grounded in secular, anti-clerical policies. This new era, fueled by ideals of liberty and modernization, was tumultuous, filled with internal struggles, and marked by a tension between religious traditions and secular ambitions that has profoundly shaped Portugal’s identity. In this article, we will explore the history behind the establishment of the Portuguese Republic, its foundational secular policies, and its lasting impact on Portuguese society and the Catholic Church.
Portugal Before the Republic: A Monarchy Rooted in Catholicism
The Influence of Catholicism on Portuguese Identity
Since its establishment in the 12th century, the Portuguese monarchy had maintained a close relationship with the Catholic Church. Portugal's national identity was inextricably linked to Catholicism, especially through events such as the Reconquista, which led to the expulsion of Muslim and Jewish communities and established a dominant Catholic society. Over the centuries, the Church wielded substantial power, influencing politics, education, social services, and land ownership.
During the Age of Exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries, Catholicism played a central role in Portugal’s overseas expansion. Missionary activity was integral to Portuguese colonial policy, with Jesuit missionaries accompanying explorers to convert indigenous peoples across Africa, Asia, and South America. The Church’s power continued to grow, and by the 19th century, it held significant economic assets and influence over the monarchy.
Social and Political Challenges in the 19th Century
By the 19th century, however, Portugal was facing mounting internal and external challenges that would ultimately destabilize the monarchy. Economically, Portugal was struggling with debt, agricultural inefficiencies, and limited industrialization. Politically, the country was divided between conservatives, who supported the monarchy and the Church’s traditional role, and liberals, who called for modernization, including constitutional reforms and limitations on ecclesiastical power.
The failure of the monarchy to address these issues fueled discontent, leading to a series of conflicts, including the Liberal Wars (1832-1834) between absolutists loyal to the monarchy and liberals who sought to establish a constitutional monarchy. Though the liberals ultimately prevailed, the monarchy continued to waver between conservative and liberal influences, weakening its stability.
The monarchs in the later part of the 19th century, particularly King Carlos I, struggled to maintain authority amidst a corrupt administration and an increasingly mobilized opposition. As social, economic, and political instability worsened, radical republican and socialist ideas began to spread, challenging the monarchy's authority and the Church’s influence.
The Establishment of the Portuguese Republic: The Revolution of 1910
The Republican Movement and the Anti-Clerical Agenda
By the turn of the 20th century, the Republican Party had become a prominent force in Portuguese politics, advocating for the abolition of the monarchy, democratic governance, and a secular society. The Party’s anti-clerical stance was central to its platform, as its leaders viewed the Church as a remnant of feudalism and an obstacle to modernization.
Republican leaders criticized the Church’s involvement in education, viewing it as a tool for indoctrination rather than intellectual development. They also objected to the Church’s wealth and control over social services, seeing these as domains better handled by a secular state. As a result, anti-clericalism became a rallying cry for those who sought to dismantle traditional institutions and establish a modern, democratic Portugal.
The October 5, 1910 Revolution
On October 5, 1910, a revolutionary uprising led by republican militants, intellectuals, and members of the middle class overthrew the monarchy, forcing King Manuel II into exile. The republic was proclaimed in Lisbon, marking the end of nearly 800 years of Portuguese monarchy and the beginning of the First Portuguese Republic.
The establishment of the republic was accompanied by a wave of anti-clerical sentiment, as the republican leaders sought to break the Catholic Church’s hold over Portuguese society. This marked the beginning of a radical secularization process that would fundamentally reshape the nation.
Secular Policies and Anti-Clerical Legislation in the First Republic
The newly established Portuguese Republic implemented a series of laws and policies designed to diminish the Church’s influence and establish a secular state. These measures, enacted between 1910 and 1917, aimed to transfer authority from the Church to the state in areas such as education, civil registration, and social welfare.
Separation of Church and State
One of the first and most symbolic acts of the republic was the formal separation of Church and state, enacted in 1911. This legislation abolished religious privileges, declaring that the government would no longer recognize Catholicism as the official religion of Portugal. Religious symbols were removed from public buildings, and religious instruction in schools was discontinued. The law also prohibited public funding of the Church, reducing its financial resources and influence over state affairs.
Nationalization of Church Property
In an effort to weaken the Church’s economic power, the republic confiscated Church properties, including monasteries, convents, and schools. Many of these properties were repurposed as public buildings or sold to private owners. This policy dealt a significant blow to the Church’s material resources and was emblematic of the republic’s determination to dismantle ecclesiastical wealth and privilege.
Marriage, Civil Registration, and Education Reforms
To further establish secular authority, the republic introduced laws requiring civil registration of births, marriages, and deaths, transferring these functions from the Church to state-run institutions. Civil marriage was established as the only legally recognized form of marriage, and religious ceremonies were no longer given legal standing.
The government also sought to secularize education, believing that the Church’s influence over schools hindered intellectual and scientific progress. Religious schools were closed or secularized, and religious instruction was banned from public education. This reform was particularly controversial, as many Catholic families objected to the exclusion of religious education from their children’s schooling.
Suppression of Religious Orders and Restrictions on Clergy
The republican government implemented measures to restrict religious orders and control the activities of clergy. Religious orders were dissolved, and many members were expelled from the country. The state imposed strict controls on the activities of the remaining clergy, requiring government approval for religious gatherings and prohibiting clerical involvement in politics. This policy further marginalized the Church, reducing its influence on both public and private life.
Resistance, Repression, and the Church’s Response
Opposition to Secularism
The radical secular policies of the First Republic generated strong opposition from Catholic communities, clergy, and conservative factions. Many Portuguese citizens, especially in rural areas, remained deeply attached to the Catholic faith and viewed the government’s anti-clericalism as an assault on their religious identity. Resistance manifested in various forms, including protests, petitions, and even violent uprisings in some regions.
Government Repression
In response to Catholic opposition, the republican government resorted to repressive measures to enforce its secular agenda. Churches were often monitored, and clergy who spoke out against the republic faced imprisonment or exile. Anti-clerical militias occasionally vandalized churches and attacked religious gatherings, adding to the atmosphere of hostility. The government’s harsh tactics alienated many Portuguese citizens, fueling resentment and undermining popular support for the republic.
The Role of Pope Benedict XV
The Vatican, under Pope Benedict XV, condemned the Portuguese Republic’s anti-clerical policies, issuing protests and calling for the protection of religious freedoms in Portugal. The Pope’s intervention intensified international scrutiny of the Portuguese government’s actions, putting pressure on republican leaders to moderate their policies. This pressure, combined with growing internal discontent, eventually led to a gradual easing of anti-clerical measures, though the government’s secular stance remained firm.
The Fall of the First Republic and the Legacy of Secularism
Political Instability and the Collapse of the Republic
The First Portuguese Republic was marked by chronic political instability, with frequent changes in government, internal divisions within the republican movement, and rising social tensions. This instability, compounded by the economic hardships caused by World War I, eventually led to the collapse of the republic. In 1926, a military coup overthrew the republican government, ushering in a period of authoritarian rule that would later evolve into the Estado Novo under António de Oliveira Salazar.
Secularism and the Estado Novo
Though the Estado Novo, which ruled from 1933 to 1974, sought to reestablish a closer relationship with the Catholic Church, it retained certain secular aspects introduced by the First Republic. Salazar’s regime restored some privileges to the Church but kept education, marriage, and civil registration under state control. This arrangement allowed the Estado Novo to maintain a degree of secularism while benefiting from the moral support of the Catholic Church, which viewed the authoritarian regime as a protector against communism and secular radicalism.
Lasting Impact of the First Republic’s Secular Policies
The legacy of the First Portuguese Republic’s secularism continues to shape Portuguese society and its relationship with the Catholic Church. While later governments reestablished diplomatic ties with the Vatican and moderated anti-clerical policies, the principle of secular governance remained a foundational element of the modern Portuguese state.
Today, Portugal maintains a secular constitution, guaranteeing freedom of religion and separation of Church and state. Catholicism remains influential in Portuguese culture, but its role is largely symbolic, with state institutions operating independently of religious authority. The First Republic’s secular reforms, though controversial and short-lived, set the stage for a modern Portuguese identity that balances Catholic heritage with a commitment to secularism and religious pluralism.
The establishment of the Portuguese First Republic marked a radical departure from Portugal’s monarchical, Catholic past. Through its secular reforms and anti-clerical policies, the republic sought to create a modern, democratic society rooted in principles of liberty and equality. Though the First Republic was short-lived, its legacy of secularism has endured, shaping Portugal’s political and cultural landscape. Today, Portugal stands as a secular state that respects religious freedom, a testament to the transformative power of the republican movement and its enduring impact on Portuguese society.