The expulsion and forced conversion of Jews in medieval Spain and Portugal represent some of the most tragic episodes in Jewish history. This dark chapter of persecution, which began in Spain in 1492 and was echoed in Portugal in 1496, marked the end of centuries-old Jewish communities on the Iberian Peninsula. Though many Jews were forced to convert to Christianity or face exile, many of these Conversos (or Marranos, as they were called in Portugal) continued practicing Judaism in secret, preserving their heritage through generations.
This article examines the history and impact of these expulsions and conversions, the role of religious and political dynamics, and the resilience of Jewish communities that endured under centuries of scrutiny. The story of forced conversion and hidden faith is a testament to the strength of the Jewish spirit in the face of relentless persecution.
Jewish Life on the Iberian Peninsula Before the Expulsions
Jewish communities have been present on the Iberian Peninsula for over a thousand years. They thrived in Spain and Portugal, particularly during the early medieval period when they were valued for their skills in medicine, trade, scholarship, and diplomacy. During the rule of Muslim and later Christian kingdoms in Spain, Jews generally lived in relative security, although conditions varied.
In Spain, Jews were integral to the cultural and intellectual achievements of La Convivencia, a period marked by religious coexistence among Muslims, Christians, and Jews. This era produced a vibrant Jewish culture, with communities centered in cities like Toledo, Seville, and Granada, where Jewish scholars contributed to philosophy, science, and literature.
In Portugal, Jews were similarly respected and played vital roles in commerce and administration. Communities known as judiarias, or Jewish quarters, existed in towns and cities across Portugal, including Lisbon, Porto, and Évora. Despite instances of discrimination, Jews in both countries generally thrived, contributing significantly to the cultural and economic fabric of society.
The Rise of Religious Intolerance and the Road to Expulsion
In the late 14th and 15th centuries, the climate of tolerance began to erode across the Iberian Peninsula. As Christian kingdoms gained power over Muslim territories in the Reconquista, religious fervor intensified, and social pressures against Jews increased. Hostility toward Jews was exacerbated by political motivations and economic tensions, as monarchs sought to consolidate their power and wealth.
- Anti-Jewish Riots and Massacres in Spain: In 1391, anti-Jewish riots erupted in several Spanish cities, resulting in mass killings and forced conversions. These events marked a turning point, as many Jews converted to Christianity under duress, creating a population known as Conversos. Despite their conversion, many Conversos continued to practice Jewish traditions secretly, which fueled suspicion and resentment among Christians.
- The Spanish Inquisition: Established in 1478 by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Spanish Inquisition aimed to root out heresy and enforce Catholic orthodoxy. Although it targeted various groups, its primary focus became the Conversos—those suspected of secretly practicing Judaism. The Inquisition’s methods included interrogation, torture, and public punishment, creating an atmosphere of fear and repression. By the late 15th century, the Inquisition had become a powerful institution that enforced religious conformity and marginalized dissent.
- The Alhambra Decree of 1492: On March 31, 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella issued the Alhambra Decree, or Edict of Expulsion, which mandated that all Jews must leave Spain by the end of July that year. The decree offered a stark choice: convert to Christianity or face exile. Estimates suggest that up to 200,000 Jews fled Spain, dispersing across North Africa, the Ottoman Empire, Italy, and Portugal. Those who chose to remain often converted to Christianity, though many secretly maintained Jewish practices.
The expulsion not only devastated Jewish communities but also marked a significant loss for Spain. The exodus deprived the kingdom of a skilled and productive population, affecting its economy and cultural diversity.
The Expulsion of Jews from Portugal in 1496
Following Spain’s example, Portugal’s King Manuel I faced pressure to expel Jews. In 1496, when he sought to marry Isabella of Aragon, Ferdinand and Isabella’s daughter, the marriage contract required the expulsion of Portuguese Jews. While King Manuel initially resisted, he eventually agreed, issuing a decree that forced Jews to convert or leave Portugal.
- Deception and Forced Conversions: Unlike Spain, where Jews were allowed to emigrate, Manuel implemented a deceptive strategy to minimize the impact on Portugal’s economy. Rather than allowing Jews to leave, he staged a series of mass conversions in which Jewish children were taken from their families and forcibly baptized. Jewish adults were pressured to convert, often under threat of violence, with few being allowed to leave the country.
- The Emergence of Portuguese Conversos (Marranos): Thousands of Portuguese Jews were baptized against their will, creating a population of Conversos or Marranos. These forced converts faced severe restrictions and social stigma, as they were neither fully accepted as Christians nor allowed to openly practice Judaism. Many continued observing Jewish customs in secret, risking punishment from both society and, eventually, the Inquisition.
This coerced conversion effectively ended Jewish communal life in Portugal. Synagogues were abandoned or repurposed, religious artifacts were hidden, and Jewish rituals were passed down discreetly within families.
The Portuguese Inquisition and Persecution of Conversos
The Portuguese Inquisition, established in 1536, expanded upon Spain’s model and targeted the Conversos with particular intensity. This institution had sweeping powers to investigate and punish anyone accused of heresy, including those suspected of secretly practicing Judaism.
- Methods and Practices of the Inquisition: The Inquisition conducted investigations, arrests, and trials, using torture to extract confessions. Accusations of “Judaizing”—secretly practicing Judaism—could be based on minor actions, such as lighting candles on Friday evenings or avoiding pork. Those found guilty faced imprisonment, property confiscation, and, in extreme cases, execution by burning.
- The Auto-da-Fé and Public Humiliations: The Inquisition held auto-da-fé ceremonies, where accused heretics were paraded publicly and punished. These ceremonies served as a stark warning to others and underscored the Inquisition’s authority. For Conversos, who were often forced to renounce their heritage publicly, the auto-da-fé was a profound humiliation and an assault on their identity.
The Inquisition’s persecution of Conversos persisted for over two centuries, diminishing only in the late 18th century. During this period, many Conversos lived in constant fear, suppressing their identity while trying to pass as “Old Christians.”
Survival and Secret Practices: The Crypto-Jews of Portugal
Despite the Inquisition’s pressures, many Conversos continued to practice Judaism in secret, becoming known as Crypto-Jews. In remote Portuguese villages like Belmonte, entire families maintained Jewish traditions in hiding, passing down rituals and beliefs across generations. These Crypto-Jews observed Jewish holidays, kept kosher dietary practices, and recited Hebrew prayers, adapting their customs to avoid detection.
- Adaptations and Hidden Rituals: Portuguese Crypto-Jews developed covert ways of practicing Judaism. For instance, they would mark holidays without outward signs, pray in secluded spaces, and disguise religious symbols within their homes. Women played a crucial role in preserving these traditions, teaching prayers and rituals to their children and ensuring that Jewish customs survived within the family unit.
- Rediscovery in Modern Times: In the early 20th century, the Crypto-Jewish community of Belmonte was rediscovered, sparking interest and support from the global Jewish community. Belmonte’s Crypto-Jews returned formally to Judaism in the late 20th century, marking the culmination of centuries of hidden faith. Today, Belmonte is home to a thriving Jewish community, a synagogue, and a Jewish museum that commemorates their extraordinary story.
The Legacy of Expulsion and Forced Conversion
The forced conversions and expulsions had lasting effects on Jewish identity and heritage. Many Conversos eventually emigrated, settling in places where they could openly reclaim their Jewish faith. Others assimilated into Christian society, yet retained a cultural memory of their Jewish roots. Today, descendants of Conversos can be found around the world, and a growing number have reconnected with their Jewish heritage.
- Reconnection and Rediscovery: In recent years, descendants of Conversos in Spain and Portugal have explored their ancestral faith, discovering customs, names, and family traditions that link them to Jewish heritage. For many, this journey has brought about a deeper understanding of their identity and a desire to revive traditions lost to history.
- Recognition by the Portuguese Government: In 2015, Portugal passed a law offering citizenship to descendants of Sephardic Jews expelled in the 15th and 16th centuries. This law, designed as an act of reconciliation, has enabled thousands to reconnect with their heritage and helped foster a renewed appreciation for Portugal’s Jewish history.
Reflection on Faith, Identity, and Resilience
The expulsion and forced conversion of Jews in Spain and Portugal are poignant examples of the resilience of faith and identity under extreme oppression. These events left profound scars, both on the Jewish communities who were directly affected and on the broader Iberian society that lost a vibrant and integral part of its cultural tapestry. Despite centuries of persecution, many Jews managed to preserve their beliefs and traditions, often passing them down in secrecy across generations.
The experiences of these Conversos and Crypto-Jews reveal the power of hidden resilience, where faith was kept alive through whispered prayers, private rituals, and an enduring hope for a future of religious freedom. These hidden communities exemplify how identity can endure even in the face of systemic efforts to erase it. Today, their stories inspire those who seek to honor the memory of these communities and reclaim a heritage nearly lost to time.
Rediscovery and Revival in Modern Times
In the 20th and 21st centuries, global interest in the Jewish history of Iberia has led to a renewed appreciation for the cultural contributions of Sephardic Jews. Many descendants of Conversos have explored their family histories, finding traces of Jewish heritage in family customs, foods, or names. These rediscoveries have deepened the understanding of how far-reaching the impact of the expulsions and forced conversions truly was.
- Belmonte and the Return to Judaism: The Jewish community in Belmonte, Portugal, became a symbol of Crypto-Jewish resilience. Rediscovered in the early 20th century, this community underwent formal recognition and a return to open Judaism. They built the first synagogue in Portugal since the Inquisition and established the Jewish Museum of Belmonte, which preserves the history of their hidden faith.
- The Jewish Heritage Route in Portugal and Spain: With a renewed focus on Jewish history, many historical judiarias (Jewish quarters) across Iberia have been restored, and Jewish heritage routes now lead visitors through the landmarks of a once-thriving community. Festivals, synagogues, and museums in towns like Castelo de Vide, Belmonte, and Lisbon celebrate the Sephardic Jewish legacy. These efforts honor the memory of the expelled and forcibly converted Jews, acknowledging their contributions to Iberian culture and the persistence of their descendants.
- Legal and Cultural Recognition: Both Spain and Portugal have enacted laws granting citizenship to the descendants of Sephardic Jews expelled during the Inquisition. This historic act of reconciliation acknowledges the injustices of the past and recognizes the Sephardic Jewish legacy as a valuable part of the Iberian heritage. Thousands of descendants worldwide have applied for citizenship, reconnecting with their ancestral homeland and helping to revive the cultural connections severed so long ago.
The Legacy of Sephardic Jews Today
The expulsion and forced conversion of Jews from Spain and Portugal continue to resonate as a powerful symbol of faith, resilience, and the enduring strength of identity. Modern Sephardic Jewish communities, dispersed across the globe, still maintain traditions rooted in the Iberian Peninsula. Synagogues in North Africa, the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and Latin America hold remnants of Portuguese and Spanish liturgies, and Sephardic Jews around the world keep alive Ladino, the unique Judeo-Spanish language that evolved in diaspora.
In Portugal, the revival of Jewish heritage in places like Belmonte reflects both a respect for history and a recognition of diversity. The Sephardic experience in Iberia is not only a story of persecution but also a testament to the adaptability and vitality of Jewish culture. It serves as a reminder of the importance of tolerance, cultural richness, and religious freedom.
Today, the Sephardic Jewish experience is celebrated globally, with communities that proudly uphold the rituals, music, cuisine, and language of their Iberian ancestors. The legacy of the Sephardic Jews stands as a testament to the enduring human spirit, the will to survive, and the courage to remember a shared past.
Honoring the Memory and Legacy of Iberian Jewry
The history of the forced conversion and expulsion of Jews in Spain and Portugal is a profound reminder of the consequences of intolerance and the resilience of the human spirit. While the Jewish communities of Iberia faced unimaginable hardship, they preserved their faith and culture against all odds. This chapter in history has left an indelible mark, with memories of loss, hidden faith, and survival passed down through generations.
In rediscovering and honoring the legacy of these communities, we acknowledge the rich cultural and intellectual heritage that Jewish communities brought to Iberia. We also recognize the enduring impact of those centuries-old events on the modern Sephardic diaspora and on contemporary society’s understanding of tolerance and religious freedom. The resilience of Iberian Jewry serves as a testament to the strength of identity and faith, inspiring future generations to remember and preserve the memory of those who came before.