1. Introduction to Psalms of Solomon
- S. Holm-Nielsen, Psalmen Salomos (1977);
- G. Maier, Mensch und freier Wille, 264-301 (1971);
- H. E. Ryle and M. R. James, Psalms of the Pharisees (1891);
- J. Schüpphaus, Die Psalmen Salomos: Ein Zeugnis Jerusalemer Theologie und Frömmigkeit in der Mitte des vorchristlichen Jahrhunderts (1977);
- M. Seifrid, Justification by Faith. The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme, 109–35 (1992);
- J. Viteau, Psaumes de Salomon (1911);
- M. Winninge, Sinners and the Righteous (1995);
- R. B. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, vol. 1 (1983).
The Psalms of Solomon has survived only in Greek and Syriac translations. (The Syriac may be a translation of the Greek, but this is disputed. ) The Psalms of Solomon, however, is probably a translation of an original Hebrew or possibly Aramaic text. The attribution of the Psalms of Solomon to Solomon is secondary; in fact, Solomon is never even mentioned in these texts. Probably, Psalms of Solomon derives from a group of Jews at odds with the Hasmonean establishment. It is possible that these texts were written at different times by different authors. Pss. Sol. 8, 17 refer to Pompey’s siege of Jerusalem in 63 BCE, so they must be dated after the Roman subjugation of the Hasmoneans; Ps. Sol. 2 must be dated after 48 BCE, because it refers Pompey’s ignominious death in that year. (Ps. Sol. 7 may refer to the expectation of Pompey’s invasion: “And the gentile will not prevail over us” [7:6].) It is probable that the other compositions are to be dated during the first century, either before or after Pompey’s arrival in Jerusalem, but not after 40 BCE, the rise of Herod, since there is no reference or even allusion to Herod’s usurpation of power.
The group responsible for the Psalms of Solomon is probably the Pharisees, as traditionally has been held. By the first century BCE, it is improbable that the movement originating in the second-century BCE (or even earlier) called the Chasidim in 1 and 2 Maccabees still existed as an identifiable group; rather, in its place, there arose the three “philosophies” (as Josephus calls them): Pharisaism; Sadduceanism and Essenism. The group behind the production of the Psalms of Solomon was critical of the Hasmonean dynasty, which means that it was politically marginalized. (From Josephus’s writings, it is known that, beginning with John Hyrcanus, the Hasmoneans supported the Sadducees, allegedly because the Pharisees rejected the Hasmonean claim to the High Priesthood [Ant. 13.288–98]. Relations between the Pharisees and Alexander Jannaeus were poor, to say the least [see Ant. 13.372–83]. Only briefly, under Queen Salome, the widow of a Hasmonean ruler, did the Pharisees have the opportunity to influence the affairs of state.) Thus, this eliminates the Sadducees, who enjoyed the support of the Hasmoneans. Besides, these texts give expression to the doctrines of resurrection and final judgment, which would be incompatible with what is known of Sadducean beliefs. Also the reference to “the holy ones,” i.e., angels, in 17:43 runs counter to the tenets of the Sadducees. This leaves only the Pharisees and the Essenes. An Essene origin for Psalms of Solomon is unlikely, since there is nothing distinctly Essene in the religious views expressed in the texts; similarly, no copies or fragments of Psalms of Solomon have been found at Qumran, probably an Essene community. Thus, by a process of elimination, only the Pharisees are left as the religious group responsible for the Psalms of Solomon. Indeed, the views expressed in these texts are compatible with what is known of Pharisaism from other sources. (A. Jaubert objects that it is difficult to accept that the Pharisees would espouse a Davidic messianism, but still support the Hasmonean Salome Alexandra and probably her son Hyrcanus II [La notion d’alliance dans le judaïsme, 254 n. 12]. But it seems that Pharisaic support for Alexandra was an arrangement of convenience and not a indication of the Pharisees’ acceptance of the Hasmonean dynastic claim.) Many of these compositions focus on “the devout” also known as “the righteous” and several other synonymous terms. If Psalms of Solomon is Pharisaic in origin, “the righteous” or “the devout” should be interpreted as the Pharisees, whereas the “wicked” are their opponents, which would include the Hasmoneans and their supporters as well as the pro-Hasmonean Sadducees. The righteous are also called “the poor” (5:2; 15:1), “the humble” (5:12), “those who fear the Lord or God” (2:33; 3:12; 4:23; 5:18; 6:5; 13:12) and “those who love God” (6:6; 10:3; 14:1), in contrast to their disobedient counterparts.
|
| In 1968, construction workers in Jerusalem discovered the remains of a tomb from the first century. In the tomb was a Jewish ossuary with the inscription "Johohanan, son of HGQWL." The occupant of the ossuary, a man in his twenties, had been crucified—likely by the Romans; this was obvious by the fact that a nail was found piercing the heel bone (calcaneum) of the victim. |
2. Summary of Psalms of Solomon
In general, the purpose of the composition of Psalms of Solomon is to give expression to the views of Pharisaism of the first century BCE; thus, these texts represent the Pharisees' critique of political events and Pharisaic theological self-understanding from the first century BCE. Some of the psalms are polemical, intepreting Pompey’s success at the expense of the Hasmoneans as God’s judgment on the latter (1, 2, 8, 17, 18). Other psalms are more purely theological, reflecting the views of the author(s) and the Pharisees generally. As indicated, these compositions were probably written at different times by different authors; at some point, these writings were brought together as one text.
2.1. Ps. Sol. 1
The speaker is Hasmonean Jerusalem, who concludes that the approaching sinners (Romans) cannot harm her, since she is “full of righteousness.” Proof of this is the fact that she has “prospered and had many children.” What the personified city does not realize that God is about the punish her for her hidden sins, which includes the profanation of the Temple.
2.2. Ps. Sol. 2
This psalm describes Pompey’s invasion of Jerusalem and deportation of some captives to Rome as punishment for the sins of the city, including defilement of the Temple. Pompey’s ignominious death is interpreted as punishment for the insolence shown during his invasion of the city, especially his entering the Temple. The psalmist concludes with a warning to rulers that God judges, repaying the sinner according to his deeds and having mercy on the righteous.
2.3. Ps. Sol. 3
The psalmist contrasts the righteous and the sinner. The righteous are destined to be raised to eternal life, whereas the sinner will be destroyed.
2.4. Ps. Sol. 4
The author gives the characteristics of the sinner, and asks that God judge the sinner appropriately. The psalm concludes with a blessing on the righteous.
2.5. Ps. Sol. 5
This psalm praises God for his protection of the righteous who call out to God for help. It concludes with the assertion that it is most blessed to have neither too much not too little, but a moderate sufficiency.
2.6. Ps. Sol. 6
This psalm is a description of the blessedness of the “man whose heart is ready to call on the name of the Lord,” i.e., the righteous.
2.7. Ps. Sol. 7
This psalm is a prayer to God to protect His people against gentile invaders. (Probably, it was written before Pompey’s invasion of Jerusalem.) The author does not object to being disciplined by God, but prefers that God not use gentiles for this purpose.
2.8. Ps. Sol. 8
This psalm is a reflection on the author’s first-hand experience of Pompey’s invasion of Jerusalem. Although the author at first believed that God should have protected the city because of the righteousness of its inhabitants, he later realized that God’s judgment was right because of the hidden sins of the people. These secret sins included sexual sins, stealing from the Temple, priests’ being ritually impure and thereby defiling the sacrifices. The psalmist concludes by petitioning God for mercy, lest the gentiles devour them.
2.9. Ps. Sol. 9
This psalm begins by confessing that God is a righteous judge who judged Israel justly by sending the nation into exile. Then the author says that human beings have free will, so that God gives life to the one who does right, but destroys the one who does wrong. He also confesses that God forgives those who confess and repent. To conclude, the psalmist petitions God to be merciful to Israel, his chosen people.
2.10. Ps. Sol. 10
The author says that blessed is person whom the Lord disciplines, for this is a proof of God’s love.
2.11. Ps. Sol. 11
In this psalm, the author expresses his hope of the return of the dispersed Jews to the land.
2.12. Ps. Sol. 12
In this psalm, the author begins by asking God for protection against the accusations of the wicked. He concludes with a petition that the salvation of the Lord be upon Israel, that the wicked may perish and that the pious will inherit the Lord’s promises.
2.13. Ps. Sol. 13
The psalmist confesses that God has protected him and his community. He then explains that the destruction of the sinner is frightful, but the discipline of the righteous serves to remove sin.
2.14. Ps. Sol. 14
The author says that the Lord is faithful to the righteous, said to be those who endure his discipline. The pious live by God’s law, unlike the sinners, who will be destroyed. The pious will inherit life in blessedness.
2.15. Ps. Sol. 15
The author confesses that God protected him. He then says that God will always protect and prosper the righteous, whereas sinners will be destroyed on the day of the Lord’s judgment.
2.16. Ps. Sol. 16
The psalmist expresses his gratitude to God for the fact that God disciplined him when he had fallen into sin, and did not destroy him, as God would a sinner. Because of his discipline he was able to return and find mercy.
2.17. Ps. Sol. 17
In this composition, the author confesses God as king and confesses that “the kingdom of God is over the nations in judgment” (17.3). The psalmist asserts the biblical position that the kingship belongs to David and his descendents, which is an implicit criticism of its usurpation by the Hasmoneans. He then interprets Pompey’s overthrow of the Hasmoneans as judgment for their misappropriation of power; God’s punishment also includes drought. The author expresses his hope for the appearance of a sinless Davidic king, the Messiah, who would purge Jerusalem of gentiles, reassemble the dispersed Jews and judge the tribes of the people.
2.18. Ps. Sol. 18
The psalmist begins with a confession of God’s mercy and care, and then acknowledges that God disciplines his people for their sins. He asks God to cleanse the people in preparation for the coming of the Messiah.
3. Religious Ideas in Psalms of Solomon
3.1. God as King and Judge
In the Psalms of Solomon, God is portrayed as king over the whole earth, who judges both Israel and the nations (2:8-10, 30-32; 5:19; 8:24-25, 32; 9:2-3; 17:10); God’s rule is called “the kingdom of God” (17:3; 5:18). God also judges the individual (2:16-18, 27-30, 34-35; 4:24; 12; 13;6). It is said that God is a righteous judge (2:18; 9:2), that he is shows himself righteous (8:23), that his judgments are righteous (5:1; 8:8, 29 or that he judges in righteousness (4:24; 8:24-25; 10:5).
Because he is righteous, God does not allow the righteous to be destitute or be overcome by the wicked. References to God's granting mercy and protection to the righteous who call out to Him in times of trouble occur with some frequency in the Psalms of Solomon. The author of Ps. Sol. 5:11, for example, asks: "Who is the hope of the poor and needy but you, Lord? And you will listen. For who is good and kind but you, making the soul of the humble person happy by the opening of your hand in mercy?" Similarly, in 15:1a the author recalls, "When I was afflicted I called on the Lord's name; I expected the help of the God of Jacob and I was saved." He then declares, "For you, O God, are the hope and refuge of the poor" (15:1b). (See also 2:35-36; 4:23-25; 5:2-3, 8-19; 6; 10:6; 12:1, 4; 13:1-6, 12; 15:1-9.)
3.2. God’s Discipline of the Nation
With respect to the Israelite nation, God’s judgment is also his discipline (7; .8:26, 29; 9:2) In line with the deuteronomistic interpretation of history, when Israel breaks the covenant through sin, God brings disaster upon the nation that is designed not only to punish but also to discipline the recalcitrant people. The ulitmate purpose is restoration. Several of the Psalms of Solomon (2, 7, 8, 17) interpret Pompey's entrance into Jerusalem, resulting in the de facto end of the Hasmonean dynassty, as the discipline of God on the nation, in particular the Hasmonean religious and civil administration. (But, even though he was the instrument of God's discipline on the nation, Pompey's defeat at the hands of Caesar's allies was interpreted as God's judgment on him for his atrocities in Jerusalem [2:27-30].) The author of Ps. Sol. 8 professes at first his puzzlement and consternation that God could allow Pompey to invade Jerusalem, but when he learns of the secret sins that provoked God to bring judgment on the people, he understands that God’s judgment is just (8:4-8; see 1:7). The obligation of the individual Jew is always "to justify God or declare God to be righteous" (see 2:15; 8:7, 26; see also 4:8). Any misfortune that befalls the nation must by faith be accepted as God’s just discipline.
3.3. The Messiah and Eschatological Salvation
As already indicated, the author(s) of Psalms of Solomon see Pompey’s invasion as God’s judgment and discipline of the nation. Presumably, one of the reasons that God brought Jewish political independence to an end was that the Hasmoneans had usurped the kingship from the rightful heirs, the descendents of David. The author of Ps. Sol. 17 speaks of how the Hasmoneans despoiled the throne of David (17:6). In 17:21-25, he asks God to raise up for Israel a king from the line of David (“son of David”) to replace the deposed Hasmoneans and to purge Jerusalem of its gentile occupiers. It is said that the king of Israel will be Lord Messiah, and will be a righteous king, taught by God (17:31-32). In 18:4-5, the author asks God to purify the nation through discipline for the appointed day when the Messiah will reign. Gentile nations will serve under the yoke of the Messiah, and the Messiah will be free from sin and powerful in the holy spirit (see Isa 11:2) (17:36-37). The Messiah will also purge Jerusalem (including the Temple). During the Messiah’s reign, it seems that dispersed Israel will return to the land (17:31; see 8:28; 11), which shall be divided according to the biblical tribal divisions (17:28).
3.4. Human Beings as Free and Responsible, Eschatological Judgment and Resurrection
On analogy to the nation, it is assumed that individual Jews are free and responsible: "Our works (are) in the choosing and power of our souls, to do right and wrong in the works of our hands (9:4a). The standard by which Jews at least will be judged is the Law, which was given for he purpose of life (14:2-3); it is not specified on what basis gentiles will be judged. Although God executes judgment in this life ("The one who does what is right saves up life for himself with the Lord, and the one who does what is wrong causes his own life to be destroyed" [9:5]), nevertheless, there is an eschatological thrust in Psalms of Solomon, so that, alongside of God's judgments in history, there will be a final judgment of the wicked and the righteous. At this time, the righteous will receive some form of eternal life, whereas punishment awaits the wicked. Several passages bear on this. In Ps. Sol. 2:31, the author speaks God’s raising him up to glory, but God’s “putting to sleep the arrogant for eternal destruction in dishonor because they did not know him” (2:31). What is being described is the opposite eschatological destinies of the righteous and the wicked. To say that God will “raise up” the righteous probably implies some form of bodily resurrection and renewed corporeal existence. The wicked, on the other hand, seem to be destined for annihilation (In what follows in Ps. Sol. 2:32–35, the author establishes that God judges and repays the sinner for what he has done to the righteous. ) In another psalm, the author explains that there will come a time when God will “look upon” the righteous, by which is meant that he will be merciful to them and vindicate them in judgment. At this time, the sinner will be destroyed and no longer remembered; this is the share of sinners forever (3:11–12). The ones who fear the Lord “will be raised up to eternal life” (3:12), which is a probable allusion to Dan 12:2 (see 2 Macc 7:9). If so, then it is probable that the resultant state of being raised up is interpreted as a renewed corporeal existence on the earth. The eschatological life to be received by the righteous is described as never ending and as being “in the light of the Lord," a probable allusion to Isa 60:19-20 (3:12b). These further descriptions of the eschatological existence of the righteous, however, do not clarify the type of existence this will be. Similarly, Ps. Sol. 14:9–10, the final destiny of sinners is again said to be “Hades, darkness and destruction” (14:9; see 15:10). These sinners “will not be found in the day of the mercy for the righteous” (14:9b; see 19:9), which is time of the eschatological vindication of the righteous. The terms “Hades,” “darkness” and “destruction” are probably synonyms, indicating that the wicked will be punished eschatologically, possibly ending in their annihilation (see 1 Enoch 22:11; 91:12; 99:11; 103:7-8). By contrast, at this time also the righteous “will inherit life in joy” (14:10; see also 12:6). The exact nature of the life that the righteous will inherit, however, is unspecified. Along the same lines, the author of Ps. Sol. 15 explains that sinners will be destroyed “when God looks upon the earth with judgment” (15:12b), which, in this context, is idiomatic for the time of final judgment. Earlier, reference is made to God’s “flame of fire and anger” to be directed against the wicked. (15:4). It is said that the wicked will inherit “destruction and darkness” and their sins “will pursue them to Hades” (15:10). The phrase “destruction and darkness” is in synthetic parallelism with “Hades.” (Ps. Sol. 15:8–9 establishes that God will judge sinners, but does not specify that this will occur on the day of judgment.) Finally, in Ps. Sol. 13:11, it is said that “the life of the righteous is forever,” by which is meant the eschatological life that the righteous will receive.
3.5. Forgiveness and Discipline of the Individual
It is said that the ones who fear the Lord “will receive mercy” on the day of judgment, and “will live by God’s mercy forever” (15:13a). The implication is that even the righteous do not fully deserve eternal life. As already stated, the righteous are not perfect. The difference between them and the wicked is that the former do not sin habitually and, when they do sin, they repent immediately. If anyone deserves mercy, it is the righteous, because of their past record of obedience. Nevertheless, according to the conditions set forth in the Torah, God has no obligation to remove the objective guilt resulting from any sin deemed worthy of extirpation in the Torah, even those of the righteous. God as merciful, however, provides the righteous with the opportunity for the removal of objective guilt when they sin: “The righteous constantly searches his house to remove unrighteousness in his transgressions (paraptômata) ” (3:7; see 13:10). “To remove unrighteousness in his transgressions” seems to mean to remove the unrighteousness that has resulted from violations of God’s commandments, so that the "in" is being used instrumentally (“by means of”). (In Ps. Sol. 3, the righteous man, described in 3:5-8, stands in contrast to the sinner, described in 3:9-11.) The psalmist adds that the righteous man atones for his "unknowing" sins (agnoia) by fasting and the humbling of his soul” (3:7–8). It is possible that the use of both paraptôma in Ps. Sol. 3:7 and agnoia in Ps. Sol. 3:8 reflects the biblical distinction between intentional and unintentional sins (Num 15). Indeed, the clause "He atones for his (unknowing?) sins (agnoiai) seems to be influenced by Lev 5:18: "And the priest shall atone for him for his unknowing sin." Lev 5:17-18 describes the procedure for the atonement of any unintentional sin. But, given the looseness of the terminology, it is more likely that the terms paraptôma and agnoia are more or less synonyms, standing in relation to each other in a synthetic parallel construction. (The term "sin" [hamartia] in Ps. Sol. 3:10, used to describe what the sinner does, may be intended as a harsher term.) The implication of calling the righteous man’s sin an agnoia is that the righteous person, by definition, always sin unintentionally either unknowingly or uncharacteristically, as not reflecting his true nature. Thus, when the righteous person turns to him in fasting and the humbling of his soul, God grants forgiveness for any sin committed, since all of the sins of the righteous are unintentional and forgivable, as the Torah specifies.
In another psalm, the author confesses, “He [God] will cleanse a soul from sin in confessing and restoring” (9:6). When they sin, the righteous have the confidence that, provided that they confess and make restitution, God will cleanse them from their sins. It is clear that the soul that is cleansed is the soul of the righteous because the sinner would not confess his sin and seek cleansing. The author continues, “And whose sins will he forgive except those who have sinned? You bless the righteous, and do not accuse them for what they have sinned. And your goodness is upon those who sin, when they repent” (9:7). Remarkably, in this passage, the same group of Jews is called both “righteous” and said to sin or have sins. The righteous who sin, however, are not in the same category as the sinners who sin. Even though they sin, the righteous are not sinners. The difference between them and the sinners is that the righteous repent when they sin. The adverbial phrase “in repentance” serves to qualify the sinning by the righteous and to specify the condition upon which God will not accuse them when they sin but will allow his goodness to be upon them. To repent is to turn from the sin towards a renewed obedience. What is not stated in Ps. Sol. 9, however, is whether there is a limit to the number of times a righteous man can confess, repent and make restitution before he disqualifies himself from being righteous and passes over to the category of the sinner. It should also be noted that, in this passage, it seems that the possibility of the removal of objective guilt is tied to God’s covenant with the nation, since immediately following the discussion in Ps. Sol. 9:6–7 is found a description of God’s covenantal promise of compassion and mercy to Israel, the descendents of Abraham (9:8–11). God’s mercy to the righteous is probably grounded in his covenant with the nation. Interestingly, no reference to atoning sacrifice as part of the means of obtaining forgiveness is found in the Psalms of Solomon, but this could easily be accidental.
Divine discipline is said to effect the removal of objective guilt. It is significant that God is called “the one who disciplines us” in Ps. Sol. 8:29, though in a national context. God distinguishes between the wicked and the righteous, in that the former are punished for their sins, whereas the latter are disciplined: “For the discipline of the righteous in ignorance is not the same as the destruction of the sinners” (13:7). The adverbial phrase "in ignorance" probably denotes, not so much the unknowing, but more the uncharacteristic transgressions of the righteous, which is to say all their sins (see 18:4; 3:8). The difference between punishment and discipline is that the latter is salvific in intent, whereas the former is retributive. Because “the righteousness of the devout” is “before God” (9:3), when uncharacteristically a righteous person sins, God responds to him as a father would to a disobedient son, by disciplining him (10:9). No doubt, this is what is meant by proving the Lord right (3:5; see also 2:15; 8:7) or proving the Lord’s judgment right (3:3) when undergoing the discipline of God (3:4): it is the acceptance of God’s discipline as deserved. Submission to such discipline has the effect of removing the objective guilt of the sin that occasioned the discipline: “For the Lord will spare his devout, and he will wipe away their transgressions with discipline” (13:10). In another psalm, the author declares, “The one who prepares his back for the whip shall be cleansed, for the Lord is good to those who endure discipline” (10:2; see also 14:1–2; Sir 23:2). The willing acceptance of correction from God leads to purification from sin; this probably should be taken to mean that the suffering resulting from discipline removes objective guilt.
A testimonial to God’s mercy experienced as discipline is found in Ps. Sol. 16:1–5. The author had unknowingly slipped into sin, but God, not counting him as among the sinners, disciplined him: “He jabbed me as a horse is goaded to keep it awake; my savior and protector at all times saved me” (16:4). He concludes by petitioning God to discipline him if he sins in order that he might return (16:11). In spite of the fact that human beings have free will and therefore are responsible for their choices, God as merciful will influence that freedom of will for the benefit of the righteous person, so long as the latter cooperates, which he should since he is righteous.
3.6. Suffering as Testing
In Ps. Sol. 16, the author describes the process of testing which God requires the righteous to endure: "When a person is examined by the hand of his mortality, your testing is in his flesh and in the affliction of poverty. If the righteous endures these things he will be shown mercy by the Lord" (16:14-15). Periodically, God tests the character of the righteous by having them endure for a time bodily pain and economic deprivation. In order to pass the test the righteous must maintain their trust in God and their obedience to his will. God's mercy will be restored when the righteous have proven themselves to be what they profess to be.
3.7. The Angel of Death
The author of Ps. Sol. 7 refers to God’s sending “death,” and giving special instructions to him concerning Israel. “Death” probably refers to the “angel of death.”