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The section is primarily an archive of public domain and redistributable language learning resources. We are also developing special content for the site which will be of interest to language learners, travellers, linguists, and other language aficionados....

See LANGUAGES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. ...

1. Concrete and Abstract: The thinking of the Hebrews, like that of other Semites, was done, not in the abstract, but in the concrete. Thus, we find the material put for the immaterial, the expression for the thought, the instrument for the action, the action for the feeling. This mode of expression...

See LANGUAGES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. ...

See LANGUAGES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT; ARAMAIC. ⇒See also the McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia. ...

DefinitionLiterary StyleSynoptic GospelsSynoptic ProblemThe ProblemProposed SolutionsTheory of Mutual DependenceTheory of Documentary HypothesisTheory of Oral TraditionEclectic ViewWhy SimilaritiesWhy Diferences?Definition The Term Gospel comes from an old Anglo-Saxon word godespel meaning God's tid...

Free Unicode fonts and keyboards Unicode fonts are now becoming standard, and they are easy to use with the free Tyndale Unicode Font Kit. Almost all word processors now support unicode - with the notable exceptions of Word Perfect on the PC and Word on the Mac before Word 2004. If you use Windows 9...

Mel Gibson’s movie The Passion of the Christ is basically a dramatization of the 14 traditional Stations of the Cross. Throughout the movie, the characters have flashbacks that tell the story of Jesus’ ministry. That is an excellent technique, because the New Testament doesn’t give us enough narrati...

PreambleChristology as the Fundamental Christian DoctrineThe Theological and Legal Necessity for the Virgin BirthJesus as MediatorJesus as SacrificeThe Narrative Necessity for the Virgin BirthThe AnnunciationJoseph’s ReactionMary’s Visit to ElizabethJesus in the Temple at the Age of TwelveThe Charac...

1 John 5:7-8 reads differently in the King James Version than in other translations because Erasmus lost a bet. If you compare this verse in the King James Version, you will find a Trinitarian formula (“the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, and these three are one” ) that does not appear in mos...

You decide to buy yourself or someone else a Bible, so you run down to the nearest bookstore—but they have so many different translations, you don’t know where to begin. Here is something that might help: a list of modern translations that you are likely to find in a bookstore, with a description of...

Every so often, someone writes to ask me about some obscure Bible translation, and invariably they add, ‘it is supposed to be a literal translation.’ For me, this is a red flag. Let me explain. New Testament Greek is quite a different language from English, and a strictly literal translation is impo...

The story of the destruction of Sodom and its sister city of Gomorrah is of compelling interest today because of the current debate in the churches over homosexuality. In the course of this debate, these two chapters of Genesis have been degraded from a story of God’s justice and providence to a dia...

All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work.—2 Timothy 3:16-17, NIV Someone recently asked if I consider the Bible the inspired and inerrant word of God or if I fee...

The scrolls and scroll fragments recovered in the Qumran environs represent a voluminous body of Jewish documents, a veritable "library", dating from the third century B.C.E. to 68 C.E. Unquestionably, the "library," which is the greatest manuscript find of the twentieth century, demonstrates the r...

Quick FactsTypeLogophoneticGenealogyCuneiformLocationWest Asia > MesopotamiaTime~2500 BCE to 100 CEDirectionVariable While the cuneiform writing system was created and used at first only by the Sumerians, it did not take long before neighboring groups adopted it for their own use. By about 2500...

A Brief History The land known as Persia quickly grew from a small vassal state to the world's first great empire. The first inhabitants of Persia arrived c. 6000 B.C. from central Asia. An influx of Aryans from the Caucasus Mountains c. 1000 B.C. resulted in the formation of two kingdoms: the King...

European Absolutism And Power Politics Introduction Louis XIV (1643-1715) of France is remembered best as a strong-willed monarch who reportedly once exclaimed to his fawning courtiers, "L'etat, c'est moi" (I am the state). Whether or not he really said these words, Louis has been regarded by histor...

Africa And The Africans In The Age Of The Atlantic Slave Trade Various Authors Edited By: R. A. GuisepiAfrican Societies, Slavery, And The Slave TradeEuropeans in the age of the slave trade sometimes justified enslavementof Africans by pointing out that slavery already existed on that continent.Howe...

Africa, Emerging Civilizations In Sub-Sahara AfricaVarious Authors Edited By: R. A. Guisepi Date: 2001 Native Cultures In Sub-Sahara Africa IntroductionBy A.D. 1200, the process of civilization was approaching globaldimensions. At the same time that Europe, Asia, and the Middle East wereexperiencing ...

Africa, The Spread Of Civilization In Africa Various Authors Edited By: R. A. Guisepi Date: 2001 Africa is a continent of great size, almost 12 million square miles orabout three times the size of the United States. Most of it lies in thetropics and, although we often think of Africa in terms of it...

Africa And The Africans In The Age Of The Atlantic Slave TradeAuthor: Stearns, Peter N.;Adas, Michael;Schwartz, Stuart B.Date: 1992The African DiasporaThe slave trade was the means by which the history of the Americas andAfrica became linked and a principal way in which African societies were drawni...

The Peoples Of The AmericasAuthor: Stearns, Peter NDate: 1992The Archaic CulturesBy about 9000 B.C. small bands of hunters were widely dispersed over theAmerican continents. Changes in climate with the ending of the last Ice Agemay lay behind changes in diet and ways of life. The disappearance of la...

The Americas, Origins Of American SocietiesAuthor: Stearns, Peter NDate: 2001Origins Of American SocietiesMost archeologists agree that the Americas were originally populated bypeoples from Asia, who moved during the period of the last Ice Age when thelevel of the oceans fell. Possibly due to increa...

Ancient Rome The Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE Gary Edward Forsythe: Assistant Professor of Classical Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. Author of The Historian L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi and the Roman Annalistic Tradition. Robert A. Guisepi: Author of Ancient Voices (Re-printed by permissi...

The Andean World The rise of civilization in South America paralleled many of the processes in Mesoamerica, but it was also conditioned by the specific geographical features of that continent. The Andean world presented to men and women a peculiar geography of complex microregions with extreme cha...

The Origin And Progress Of TragedyAuthor: Rollin, CharlesDate: 1731The Origin And Progress Of Tragedy Poets Who Excelled In It At Athens; Aeschylus, Sophocles, And EuripidesThere had been many tragic and comic poets before Thespis; but as theyhad made no alteration in the original rude form of this ...

Ancient Rome Assassination Of Caesar Gary Edward Forsythe: Assistant Professor of Classical Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. Author of The Historian L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi and the Roman Annalistic Tradition. Robert A. Guisepi: Author of Ancient Voices (Re-printed by permission) "R...

AssyriaIntroductionAuthor: Godspeed, George By 700 B.C. the era of small states had ended with the emergence of the Assyrian empire. The great contribution of the Assyrians was the forcible unification of weak, unstable nations and the establishment of an efficient imperial organization. Language...

History Of The Conquest Of Mexico, The Aztecs (part eight) The Postclassical Era Book: Chapter 17: The Americas On The Eve Of Invasion Author: Prescott, William H Date: 1992 Analysis and Conclusion Analysis: The "Troubling" Civilizations Of The Americas From the first encounter with the peoples of ...

It was not only by his demonstration that lightning is identical with electricity that Franklin did an important work in connection with electrical science. He is also entitled to great credit for the stimulus imparted by his experiments and writings to further discoveries in this field. Franklin wa...

The British Dominions, The United States, And Latin America Introduction The greatest population movement in history took place between 1500 and 1914, when millions of Europeans crossed the oceans and made new homes for themselves. At the same time, the slave trade brought vast numbers of Africans ...

Ancient Rome Burning Of Rome Under Nero Gary Edward Forsythe: Assistant Professor of Classical Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. Author of The Historian L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi and the Roman Annalistic Tradition. Robert A. Guisepi: Author of Ancient Voices (Re-printed by permission)...

The Spread Of Civilization In Eastern Europe, Part Four Long before Byzantine decline after the 11th century, the empire had been the source of a new northward surge of Christianity. Orthodox missionaries sent from Constantinople busily converted most people in the Balkans - in what is now Bulgaria...

The Byzantine Empire, Part One Eastern Europe, And Russia To 1600 Donald MacGillivray Nicol: Koraës Professor Emeritus of Byzantine and Modern Greek History, Language, and Literature, King's College, University of London. Director, Gennadius Library, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1...

Ancient Rome Caesar Conquers Gaul Gary Edward Forsythe: Assistant Professor of Classical Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. Author of The Historian L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi and the Roman Annalistic Tradition. Robert A. Guisepi: Author of Ancient Voices (Re-printed by permission) "Reme...

Ancient Egypt, CHAMPOLLION, Jean-Francois (1790-1832) and the Rosetta Stone The interesting thing about the Rosetta Stone is that the writing is repeated three times in different alphabets: 196 BC: Rosetta Stone engraved In the ninth year of the reign of Egyptian King Ptolemy V Epiphanes, the temple...

The Spread Of Chinese Civilization To JapanAuthor: Stearns, Peter N.Date: 2000The Spread Of Chinese Civilization To JapanAlthough its full impact on global history has not been felt until thelast century or so, the transmission of key elements in Chinese culture to theoffshore islands that came to m...

Beginnings Of ChinaAuthor: Schwartz, Stuart B.Date: 1992A Bend In The River And The Beginnings Of ChinaThe region that gave birth to Chinese civilization was less promisingthan the once-fertile Indus plains. The Yellow River, from its source on theTibetan plateau, turns and bends its way through the...

Calvin Is Driven From Paris Author: Fairbairn, A. M.;Audin, Jean M. V. By A. M. Fairbairn He Makes Geneva The Stronghold Of Protestantism, 1533 Among what may be called the second generation of Protestant reformers, the great leader was John Calvin. By his writings, and by his directive and admin...

Rise of Civilizations and Empires in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley By Maghan Keita Historians often write of world history in terms of the development of civilizations defined by a characteristic empire. What defines an empire and what does the building of empire suggest? The regions of ...

Cuneiform Cuneiform was the system of writing used most extensively in the ancient Middle East. Cuneiform was employed for writing a number of languages from about the end of the 4th millennium BC until about the 1st century BC.The earliest attested documents in cuneiform were written in Sumerian, t...

Diderot, Denis (1713-84). The essayist and philosopher Denis Diderot was one of the originators and interpreters of the Age of Enlightenment. This 18th-century movement was based on the belief that right reason, or rationalism, could find true knowledge and lead mankind to progress and happiness. He...

Ebla Modern Tall Mardikh, also spelled TELL MARDIKH, ancient city 33 miles (53 km) southwest of Aleppo in northwestern Syria. During the height of its power (c. 2600-2240 BC), Ebla dominated northern Syria, Lebanon, and parts of northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and enjoyed trade and diplomatic rel...

Mayan Glyphs The Peoples And Civilizations Of The Americas Author: Michael Schwartz Date: 1999 Document: Deciphering The Maya Glyphs Of all the peoples of ancient America, the Maya developed the most complex system of writing to record their history, religion, philosophy, and politics. Maya hierogl...

Ancient Rome GLADIATOR. Gary Edward Forsythe: Assistant Professor of Classical Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. Author of The Historian L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi and the Roman Annalistic Tradition. Robert A. Guisepi: Author of Ancient Voices (Re-printed by permission) "Remember, Ro...

The State The Earliest Forms Of Government Author: Wilson, Woodrow Part I. 1. Nature of the Question. - The probable origin of government is a question of fact, to be settled, not by conjecture, but by history. Some traces we can still discern of the history of primitive societies. As fragments of...

Ancient Rome Gracchi And Their Reforms Gary Edward Forsythe: Assistant Professor of Classical Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. Author of The Historian L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi and the Roman Annalistic Tradition. Robert A. Guisepi: Author of Ancient Voices (Re-printed by permission) ...

A History of Ancient Greece Religions Of GreeceAuthor: Foot Moore, GeorgeDate: 1913Religion In Early GreeceThe Aegaean Civilisation - The Hellenic Migrations - Prehellenic andGreek Religion - The Land - The Gods - Zeus - Artemis - Apollo - Hermes -Athena - Aphrodite - Hera - Hephaistos - Ares - Othe...

Babylonia, A history of ancient Babylon (Babylonia) including its cities, laws, kings and legacy to civilization. Part Six History Of The Babylonians Language And Literature Book: Introduction Author: Godspeed, George 22. The discoverers of the long-buried memorials of Assyria and Babylonia were a...